Kranthi Kiran's

Have you ever wondered whether you could set ice on fire? These are instructions for how to make ice appear to burn and also instructions so that you can actually set it on fire.

Making Ice Appear to Be on Fire

Most of the photos you might see of burning ice were probably made using Photoshop, but you can get the appearance of burning ice very easily without resorting to image processing tricks. Get some glass cubes (craft stores carry them), set them on a surface that can withstand fire (metal pan, pyrex, stoneware), pour something flammable over the 'ice', and set it alight. You can use 151 rum (ethanol), rubbing alcohol (try for 90% isopropyl alcohol, not the 70% alcohol stuff), or methanol (Heet™ fuel treatment from the automotive section of a store). These easy-to-obtain fuels burn cleanly, so they won't set off your smoke alarm (I know... I tried). If you want colored flames, you can add any of the usual flame colorants to the ethanol or rubbing alcohol. If you use methanol, try adding a little boric acid for a brilliant green flame. Use caution with methanol, since it burns very hot. One little display tip: You can give glass cubes the imperfect, crackled appearance of water ice by setting one on fire and then tossing it (with tongs) into water after the fire goes out. The glass may shatter, but if you have the temperature just right you'll just create internal fractures that look very pretty in photographs.

Flaming Ice

High-proof ethanol (like 151 rum) or 90% isopropyl alcohol will float on the surface of water and mix with it so that as long as there is fuel, your ice will appear to burn. Don't use methanol... as the ice melts, it will extinguish the flame (methanol is highly toxic too). You can use ethanol on ice used for human consumption (or flaming ice cream drinks). Rubbing alcohol is toxic and should only be used for decorative purposes.

Really Burning the Ice

You may be thinking it is impossible to burn ice. Strictly speaking, that is not true. You can burn ice, just not water ice. If you make ice cubes from any of the alcohols I have listed, you can burn them. For pure alcohol ice cubes, you'll need a way to freeze the liquid down to about -100°C, give or take a few degrees depending on the specific alcohol. You don't need to get quite that cold for 75% alcohol/25% water ice, which will burn if you spritz it with a little liquid alcohol to get flammable vapor over the ice. You may be able to freeze the 75% solution over dry ice.

Flaming Ice Safety

Just remember two things: (1) If you want to ingest the flaming ice, only use food-grade ethanol, not some other fuel. (2) Methanol burns very, very hot! You can get away with using almost any surface if you use ethanol or isopropanol (hey... you can even touch the flame briefly). The uncontrolled-fire and burn risks are much higher using methanol because it produces so much heat.

I know I'm not the only person who has rummaged through old magazines and newspapers, looking for highly colored pages to throw onto a fire to make colored flames. This method of coloring fire, while fun, is hit-and-miss. Have you ever wanted to know how to color the fire reliably? I've compliled a list of colorants and simple instructions for using them. Here are some of your options:

• Toss dry colorants onto the flames.
• Soak logs in an alcohol solution of colorants.
• Soak logs in an aqueous (water) solution of colorants and allow the logs to dry.
• Prepare pinecones, sawdust, or cork with colorants.

In general, there is no specific proportion of colorant to mix with the water or alcohol. Add as much powdered colorant as will dissolve in the liquid (roughly a half pound colorant to a gallon of water). Do not attempt to mix colors together - you will probably end up with a normal yellow flame. If you want multicolored fire, try adding several pinecones, each treated with a single colorant, or scatter a mixture of dried colored sawdusts across the fire.
How to Prepare Pinecones or Sawdust
It's easy! Remember to do this procedure separately for each color. You can combine dry pinecones or sawdust with different colorants later.

1. Pour water into a bucket. Use sufficient water to be able to wet your pinecones, sawdust, or waste cork. Skip to step 3 if you purchased your colorant in liquid form.
2. Stir in colorant until you can't dissolve any more. For sawdust or waste cork, you may also add some liquid glue, which will allow the pieces to stick together and form larger chunks.
3. Add the pinecones, sawdust, or cork. Mix to form an even coat.
4. Let the material soak in the colorant mixture for several hours or overnight.
5. Spread the pieces out to dry. If desired, pinecones may be placed in a paper or mesh bag. You can spread sawdust or cork out on paper, which will also produce colored flames.

How to Prepare Logs
Follow steps 1 and 2 above and either roll a log around in the container (big container, small log) or else pour and spread the mixture onto the logs. Wear kitchen or other protective gloves to protect your hands. Allow the logs to dry. If you make your own newspaper logs, you can smear colorant onto the paper before rolling it.
Points to Keep in Mind

• The element sodium burns with the usual yellow flame. The presence of this element can overwhelm any other color. If you are making a dry mixture of colorants or colored pinecones/sawdust, you should avoid including any colorant that has sodium in it.
• If you are using alcohol-based colorants: Remember that alcohol is flammable. If you don't allow it to evaporate before use, you will get a lighter-fluid effect. Use with care!
• Don't color BBQ fire! The colorants may produce pretty flames, but they can also produce toxic food.
• Keep the colorants away from children and handle them with the care and respect due to potentially hazardous chemicals. Read and adhere to any warnings listed on product labels.

Now, here is the list of colorants. Most can be found in a grocery or dry goods store, in the laundry or cleaner section. Look for copper sulfate in swimming pool supplies (already in water, which is fine). Potassium chloride is used as a salt substitute and may be found in the spice section. Epsom salts, borax, and calcium chloride may be found with laundry/cleaning supplies. Others, including strontium chloride, can be obtained from stores that specialize in rocketry or firework supplies.

Flame Colorants

Color	Chemical
Carmine	Lithium Chloride
Red	Strontium Chloride
Orange	Calcium Chloride (a bleaching powder)
Yellow	Sodium Chloride (table salt) or Sodium Carbonate
Yellowish Green	Borax
Green	Copper Sulfate or Boric Acid
Blue	Copper Chloride
Violet	3 parts Potassium Sulfate 1 part Potassium Nitrate (saltpeter)
Purple	Potassium Chloride
White	Magnesium Sulfate (Epsom salts)

If you need to start a fire do you rub sticks together or break out your handy flint? Probably not. Most people would use a lighter or a match to start a fire. Matches allow for a portable, easy-to-use source of fire. Many chemical reactions generate heat and fire, but matches are a fairly recent invention. Matches are also an invention you probably wouldn't choose to duplicate if civilization ended today or you were stranded on a desert island. The chemicals involved in modern matches are generally safe, but that wasn't always the case:

• 1669 [Hennig Brand or Brandt, also known as Dr. Teutonicus]
  Brand was an Hamburg alchemist who discovered phosphorus during his attempts to turn base metals into gold. He allowed a vat of urine to stand until it putrified. He boiled the resulting liquid down to a paste, which he heated to a high temperature, so that the vapors could be drawn into water and condensed into... gold. Brand didn't get gold, but he did obtain a waxy white substance that glowed in the dark. This was phosphorus, one of the first elements to be isolated other than those which exist free in nature. Evaporating urine produced ammonium sodium hydrogenphosphate (microcosmic salt), which yielded sodium phosphite upon heating. When heated with carbon (charcoal) this decomposed into white phosphorus and sodium pyrophosphate: (NH₄)NaHPO₄ —› NaPO₃ + NH₃ + H₂O
  8NaPO₃ + 10C —› 2Na₄P₂O₇ + 10CO + P₄
  Although Brand tried to keep his process a secret, he sold his discovery to a German chemist, Krafft, who exhibited phosphorus throughout Europe. Word leaked out that the substance was made from urine, which was all Kunckel and Boyle needed to work out their own means of purifying phosphorus.
  
• 1678 [Johann Kunckel]
  Successfully made phosphorus from urine.
  
• 1680 [Robert Boyle]
  Boyle coated a piece of paper with phosphorus, with a separate splinter of sulfur-coated wood. When the wood was drawn through the paper, it would burst into flame. Phosphorus was difficult to obtain at that time, so the invention was only a curiosity. Boyle's method of isolating phosphorus was more efficient than Brand's: 4NaPO₃ + 2SiO₂ + 10C —› 2Na₂SiO₃ + 10CO + P₄
  
• 1826/1827 [John Walker, Samuel Jones]
  Walker serendipitously discovered a friction match made from antimony sulfide, potassium chlorate, gum, and starch, resulting from a dried blob on the end of a stick used to stir a chemical mixture. He didn't patent his discovery, though he did show it to people. Samuel Jones saw the demonstration and started to produce 'Lucifers', which were matches marketed to the Southern and Western U.S. states. Lucifers reportedly could ignite explosively, sometimes throwing sparks at a considerable distance. They were known to have a strong 'firework' odor.
• 1830 [Charles Sauria]
  Sauria reformulated the match using white phosphorus, which eliminated the strong odor. However, the phosphorus was deadly. Many people developed a disorder known as 'phossy jaw'. Children who sucked on matches developed skeletal deformities. Phosphorus factory workers got bones diseases. One pack of matches contained enough phosphorus to kill a person.
• 1892 [Joshua Pusey]
  Pusey invented the matchbook, however, he placed the striking surface on the inside of the book so that all 50 matches would ignite at once. The Diamond Match Company later purchased Pusey's patent and moved the striking surface to the exterior of the packaging.
• 1910 [Diamond Match Company]
  With a worldwide push to ban the use of white phosphorus matches, the Diamond Match Company got a patent for a non-poisonous match which used sesquisulfide of phophorous. U.S. President Taft requested that Diamond Match give up their patent.
• 1911 [Diamond Match Company]
  Diamond yielded their patent on January 28, 1911. Congress passed a law placing a prohibitively high tax on white phosphorus matches.
• Present Day
  Butane lighters have largely replaced matches in many part of the world, however matches are still made and used. The Diamond Match Company, for example, makes more than 12 billion matches a year. Approximately 500 billion matches are used annually in the United States.

Muharram is the first month of the Islamic calendar. On the first day of Muharram, the Islamic New Year is observed by Muslims. The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year. Hence it is a little different from the Gregorian calender that is used in the western nations. When compared with the Gregorian calendar, which is a solar calendar, the lunar month of Muharram shifts from year to year.

The month of Muharram is of great religious significance to Islamic people the world over. It is held to be the most sacred of all the months, excluding Ramadan. The word "Muharram" is often considered synonymous with "Ashura", the tenth day of the Muharram month.

"Ashura" is a highly important day for both sects of Islam - the Shias and the Sunnis. The Shia muslims
believe that Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, became a martyr at the Battle of Karbala on the tenth day of Muharram in 61 AH(680 AD).

The pre-Islamic period in the Arabian peninsula was the era of warring tribes. In the absence of a strong leadership, there were conflicts and battles on minor issues. But fighting was prohibited in four months of the year. These months, of which Muharram was one, were considered sacred. Muharram is so called because it was unlawful to fight during this month; the word is derived from the word ‘haram’ meaning forbidden. This period of inactivity was a necessity in heavily decorated replicas of the tomb of the Imam and his family are made for Muharram the era of warring tribes. The tradition was maintained even after the advent of Islam, though provisions to accommodate and accept war in special situations, like a threat to the sovereignty of an empire, were introduced. The gory battle of Karbala was fought against this law and tradition of Islam. The inhabitants on the banks of rivers Euphrates and Tigris were traditional rivals. Their animosity was contained to some extent by Muhammad. But when his son-in-law Hazrat Ali was the Caliph(Muslim civil and religious leader considered to be Allah's representative on earth), the old enmity re-surfaced. Hazrat Ali had two descendants, Hazrat Imam Hussain and Hazrat Imam Hassan. Hussain was the ruler of the part of the empire known today as Iran. The other part in modern Iraq was ruled by the Umayyads. Hussain was called upon by the Shiahs of Kufa, a small town in the Umayyad kingdom, to accept their allegiance and claim his place as the leader of the Islamic community. This was against the wishes of the ruler of Kufa, Yazid, who instructed his governor, Ibn-e-Ziad to take appropriate action. Meanwhile, in response to the call of the Shiahs, Hussain accompanied by his family members, headed for Kufa. When they reached Karbala, en route to Kufa, the forces of the governor surrounded them and their 70 men. Hussain, his family and his troops were tortured and killed, and Hussain's head was severed and presented to the king. They received no help from the Shiahs of Kufa.

As this tragic incident happened on the tenth day of Muharram, Shia Muslims consider this a day of sorrow. They commemorate the martyrdom of Hussain as a religious occassion called "Muharram" (named after the month of its observance). The occassion starts on the 1st day of Muharram and lasts for 10 days until 10th of Muharram. As Muharram approaches, they put on black clothes, as black is regarded as a color of mourning. During the entire 10 day period, they keep themselves away from music and all joyous events (e.g. weddings) that can distract them in anyway from the sorrowful remembrance of that day. During each of the first nine days of Muharram, "Majalis" (assemblies) are held where Shia orators vividly depict the incident of the martyrdom of Hazrat Imam Hussain and his party. Mainstream Shia Muslims fast until the evening. On "Ashura", devoted Muslims assemble and go out in large processions. They parade the streets holding banners and carrying models of the mausoleum of Hazrat Imam Hussain and his people, who fell at Karbala. Some Shia sects observe "Ashura" by beating themselves with chains in public, cutting themselves with knives and sharp objects and holding mournful public processions. This is an expression of their grief on the death of their favourite leader Hussain, considered to be the representative of Allah. (But no Shiite scholar affirms any extreme behavior that harms the body and Shia leaders consider such acts as "Haram", or forbidden.) It is a sad occasion and everyone in the procession chants "Ya Hussain", wailing loudly. Generally a white horse is beautifully decorated and included in the procession. It serves to bring back the memory of the empty mount of Hazrat Imam Husain after his martyrdom. Drinking posts are also set up temporarily by the Shia community where water and juices are served to all, free of charge.

While Shia Muslims consider "Muharram" to be a sorrowful occassion, Sunni Muslims observe it as a festival and look at "Ashura" as a happy day though the religious aspect remain intact. Pious Sunnis keep a fast("roja") on "Ashura" as per the "Hadith"(a tradition based on reports of the sayings and activities of Muhammad and his companions) of Prophet Muhammad. According to the "Hadith", the Prophet saw the Jews fasting on the 10th of Muharram to commemorate their liberation from Egyptian slavery and the extermination of the army of the Pharoah in the waters of the Red Sea. Prophet Mohammed liked the custom for he believed that it was Allah who saved the Israelites from their enemy in Egypt. He started to fast on the same day as the Jews but he planned to fast on the 9th and 10th from the following year. But death came in between him and his pious wish. Usually, Sunni Muslims are recommended to fast either on the 9th and 10th of Muharram or on the 10th and 11th of Muharram.

If you want to exercise obsessive control about how Visual Studio is launched, you’ll be pleased to know that you can do it all from your friendly neighborhood command prompt.
The Visual Studio IDE executable is called devenv.exe and includes a number of command-line switches that can be very useful. Elsewhere in this book, we have looked at a couple of these switches, but in this hack, you will learn about all the switches and how they can be used.

Typing command-line switches every time you launch an application is time consuming and just plain inefficient. Remember that you can create shortcuts that call an executable using command-line switches; you could have a number of different shortcuts for Visual Studio with different command-line switches.

Setting Fonts

One of the simplest, but very useful, things you can accomplish using command- line switches is setting the font and font size for the IDE. To specify the font, you can use the /fn switch, and to specify the size, you use /fs. It is important to note that this is not the font size of the text or contents of your files, but rather the text size of the IDE. You won’t see it affect the normal menus, but the font and size of the document tabs, options dialog, and so forth will all be in the specified font type and size.
The following command line could be used to set the Visual Studio IDE font to Verdana and the size to 14:
C:\> devenv /fn Verdana /fs 14
This does not need to be set each and every time you run the IDE; these settings will be saved and used from here on out. This is the same setting you can configure under Tools -> Options -> Fonts and Colors, then selecting the Dialogs and Tool Windows option from the Show Settings drop-down.

Execute a Command

Using the command switch, you can launch Visual Studio and automatically call a Visual Studio command. All you need to do is specify the switch /command and then follow it with the name of the command that you want to execute. In this example, I will call the File.OpenSolution command—I almost always open Visual Studio with the intent of opening a solution, so this saves a couple of mouse clicks:
C:\> devenv /command File.OpenSolution
When you run this command, Visual Studio will open, and the New Solution dialog will open. You could also use /command to execute a macro you have written to perform more complex actions.

Run a Solution

You can automatically run a solution from the command line using the /run switch. The following is an example of running a solution from the command line:
C:\> devenv /run HacksWinSample.sln
When this command is run, the IDE will open and automatically jump into debug mode loading your application. You can also use the /runexit switch, which will launch your applications and minimize the IDE. When you close your application, the IDE will be closed as well.

Building Projects and Solutions

You can build your projects or solutions using command-line switches. This can be a great alternative if you don’t have time to configure a build tool like NAnt, but want to create a build process using a batch file. To build a solution, you use the /build switch as well as the /project or /solution switch. Here is an example of building a solution from the command line:
C:\> devenv HacksWinSample.sln /build release
After the /build switch, you specify the solution configuration that you want to use when building this solution—in this example, I have used the release configuration. Running this will build the solution without opening the IDE, and the build results will be returned to the command prompt window. A number of other build switches are detailed in Table 10-1.
Table 10-1. Build switches

Switch	Description
/clean	Cleans the project or solution according to the configuration of that project or solution
/rebuild	Cleans and builds the project or solution
/project	Specifies the project to build
/projectconfig	Specifies the configuration to use when building the project
/deploy	Tells Visual Studio to deploy the solution after it has been built

Other Switches

A number of other command-line switches can be used to do various things with Visual Studio. These command-line switches are shown in Table 10-2. /out Specifies the name of a file to send any build errors to

Table 10-2. Command-line switches

Switch	Description
/lcid	Specifies the default language to use for the IDE. Example: devenv
/lcid	1033
/mdi	Specifies that Visual Studio should be run in MDI mode.
/mditabs	Specifies that Visual Studio should be run in MDI mode with tabs on documents enabled.
/migratesettings	Tells Visual Studio to trigger the settings migration process, which can be used to move settings from one version of Visual Studio to another. (You usually see this screen the first time you run a new installation of Visual Studio.)
/nologo	Launches Visual Studio without the splash screen.
/noVSIP	Disables a developer’s VSIP license on this workstation.
/safemode	Specifies that Visual Studio should open without loading any VSIP packages.
/setup	Resets certain parts of Visual Studio.
/resetskippkgs	Enables VSIP packages by clearing any SkipLoading tags. After running safe mode, this will need to be run to reenable any packages you still want to run.
/rootsuffix	Can be used to specify a registry suffix.
/?	You can always use this switch to view the help for devenv.exe.

The discovery of blood groups

Experiments with blood transfusions, the transfer of blood or blood components into a person's blood stream, have been carried out for hundreds of years. Many patients have died and it was not until 1901, when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered human blood groups, that blood transfusions became safer.
Mixing blood from two individuals can lead to blood clumping or agglutination. The clumped red cells can crack and cause toxic reactions. This can have fatal consequences. Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood clumping was an immunological reaction which occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells.

Karl Landsteiner's work made it possible to determine blood groups and thus paved the way for blood transfusions to be carried out safely. For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930.

What is blood made up of?

An adult human has about 4–6 liters of blood circulating in the body. Among other things, blood transports oxygen to various parts of the body.
Blood consists of several types of cells floating around in a fluid called plasma.

The red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds oxygen. Red blood cells transport oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from, the body tissues.

The white blood cells fight infection.

The platelets help the blood to clot, if you get a wound for example.

The plasma contains salts and various kinds of proteins.

 

 

 

 

 

What are the different blood groups?

The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies. The antigens are located on the surface of the red blood cells and the antibodies are in the blood plasma. Individuals have different types and combinations of these molecules. The blood group you belong to depends on what you have inherited from your parents.
There are more than 20 genetically determined blood group systems known today, but the AB0 and Rh systems are the most important ones used for blood transfusions. Not all blood groups are compatible with each other. Mixing incompatible blood groups leads to blood clumping or agglutination, which is dangerous for individuals.
Nobel Laureate Karl Landsteiner was involved in the discovery of both the AB0 and Rh blood groups.

AB0 blood grouping system

According to the AB0 blood group system there are four different kinds of blood groups: A, B, AB or 0 (null).

	Blood group A If you belong to the blood group A, you have A antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and B antibodies in your blood plasma.
	Blood group B If you belong to the blood group B, you have B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and A antibodies in your blood plasma.
	Blood group AB If you belong to the blood group AB, you have both A and B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and no A or B antibodies at all in your blood plasma.
	Blood group 0 If you belong to the blood group 0 (null), you have neither A or B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells but you have both A and B antibodies in your blood plasma.

Rh factor blood grouping system

Many people also have a so called Rh factor on the red blood cell's surface. This is also an antigen and those who have it are called Rh⁺. Those who haven't are called Rh^-. A person with Rh^- blood does not have Rh antibodies naturally in the blood plasma (as one can have A or B antibodies, for instance). But a person with Rh^- blood can develop Rh antibodies in the blood plasma if he or she receives blood from a person with Rh⁺ blood, whose Rh antigens can trigger the production of Rh antibodies. A person with Rh⁺ blood can receive blood from a person with Rh^- blood without any problems.

Blood group notation

According to above blood grouping systems, you can belong to either of following 8 blood groups:

A Rh+	B Rh+	AB Rh+	0 Rh+
A Rh-	B Rh-	AB Rh-	0 Rh-

Do you know which blood group you belong to?

Blood typing – how do you find out to which blood group someone belongs?

1.
You mix the blood with three different reagents including either of the three different antibodies, A, B or Rh antibodies.
2.
Then you take a look at what has happened. In which mixtures has agglutination occurred? The agglutination indicates that the blood has reacted with a certain antibody and therefore is not compatible with blood containing that kind of antibody. If the blood does not agglutinate, it indicates that the blood does not have the antigens binding the special antibody in the reagent.

3.
If you know which antigens are in the person's blood, it's easy to figure out which blood group he or she belongs to!

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A person with A+ blood receives B+ blood. The B antibodies (yellow) in the A+ blood attack the foreign red blood cells by binding to them. The B antibodies in the A+ blood bind the antigens in the B+ blood and agglutination occurs. This is dangerous because the agglutinated red blood cells break after a while and their contents leak out and become toxic.

What happens when blood clumps or agglutinates?

For a blood transfusion to be successful, AB0 and Rh blood groups must be compatible between the donor blood and the patient blood. If they are not, the red blood cells from the donated blood will clump or agglutinate. The agglutinated red cells can clog blood vessels and stop the circulation of the blood to various parts of the body. The agglutinated red blood cells also crack and its contents leak out in the body. The red blood cells contain hemoglobin which becomes toxic when outside the cell. This can have fatal consequences for the patient.

The A antigen and the A antibodies can bind to each other in the same way that the B antigens can bind to the B antibodies. This is what would happen if, for instance, a B blood person receives blood from an A blood person. The red blood cells will be linked together, like bunches of grapes, by the antibodies. As mentioned earlier, this clumping could lead to death.

Blood transfusions – who can receive blood from whom?

Of course you can always give A blood to persons with blood group A, B blood to a person with blood group B and so on. But in some cases you can receive blood with another type of blood group, or donate blood to a person with another kind of blood group.

The transfusion will work if a person who is going to receive blood has a blood group that doesn't have any antibodies against the donor blood's antigens. But if a person who is going to receive blood has antibodies matching the donor blood's antigens, the red blood cells in the donated blood will clump.

People with blood group 0 Rh - are called "universal donors" and people with blood group AB Rh+ are called "universal receivers." Rh+ blood can never be given to someone with Rh - blood, but the other way around works. For example, 0 Rh+ blood can not be given to someone with the blood type AB Rh -.

Blood Group	Antigens	Antibodies	Can give blood to	Can receive blood from
AB Rh+	A, B and Rh	None	AB Rh+	AB Rh+ AB Rh - A Rh+ A Rh - B Rh+ B Rh - 0 Rh+ 0 Rh -
AB Rh -	A and B	None (Can develop Rh antibodies)	AB Rh - AB Rh+	AB Rh - A Rh - B Rh - 0 Rh -
A Rh+	A and Rh	B	A Rh+ AB Rh+	A Rh+ A Rh - 0 Rh+ 0 Rh -
A Rh -	A	B (Can develop Rh antibodies)	A Rh - A Rh+ AB Rh - AB Rh+	A Rh - 0 Rh -
B Rh+	B and Rh	A	B Rh+ AB Rh+	B Rh+ B Rh - 0 Rh+ 0 Rh-
B Rh -	B	A (Can develop Rh antibodies)	B Rh- B Rh+ AB Rh- AB Rh+	B Rh - 0 Rh -
0 Rh+	Rh	A and B	0 Rh+ A Rh+ B Rh+ AB Rh+	0 Rh+ 0 Rh -
0 Rh -	None	A and B (Can develop Rh antibodies)	AB Rh+ AB Rh - A Rh+ A Rh - B Rh+ B Rh - 0 Rh+ 0 Rh -	0 Rh -

 

signal	part of body	possible meaning(s)	detailed explanation
Left and right are for the person giving the signals and making the movements.
looking right (generally)	eyes	creating, fabricating, guessing, lying, storytelling	Creating here is basically making things up and saying them. Depending on context this can indicate lying, but in other circumstances, for example, storytelling to a child, this would be perfectly normal. Looking right and down indicates accessing feelings, which again can be a perfectly genuine response or not, depending on the context, and to an extent the person.
looking left (generally)	eyes	recalling, remembering, retrieving 'facts'	Recalling and and then stating 'facts' from memory in appropriate context often equates to telling the truth. Whether the 'facts' (memories) are correct is another matter. Left downward looking indicates silent self-conversation or self-talk, typically in trying to arrive at a view or decision.
looking right and up	eyes	visual imagining, fabrication, lying	Related to imagination and creative (right-side) parts of the brain, this upwards right eye-movement can be a warning sign of fabrication if a person is supposed to be recalling and stating facts.
looking right sideways	eyes	imagining sounds	Sideways eye movements are believed to indicate imagining (right) or recalling (left) sounds, which can include for example a person imagining or fabricating what another person has said or could say.
looking right and down	eyes	accessing feelings	This is a creative signal but not a fabrication - it can signal that the person is self-questioning their feelings about something. Context particularly- and other signals - are important for interpreting more specific meaning about this signal.
looking left and up	eyes	recalling images truthfulness	Related to accessing memory in the brain, rather than creating or imagining. A reassuring sign if signalled when the person is recalling and stating facts.
looking left sideways	eyes	recalling or remembering sounds	Looking sideways suggests sounds; looking left suggests recalling or remembering - not fabricating or imagining. This therefore could indicate recalling what has been said by another person.
looking left down	eyes	self-talking, rationalizing	Thinking things through by self-talk - concerning an outward view, rather than the inward feelings view indicated by downward right looking.
direct eye contact (when speaking)	eyes	honesty - or faked honesty	Direct eye contact is generally regarded as a sign of truthfulness, however practised liars know this and will fake the signal.
direct eye contact (when listening)	eyes	attentiveness, interest, attraction	Eyes which stay focused on the speakers eyes, tend to indicate focused interested attention too, which is normally a sign of attraction to the person and/or the subject.
widening eyes	eyes	interest, appeal, invitation	Widening the eyes generally signals interest in something or someone, and often invites positive response. Widened eyes with raised eyebrows can otherwise be due to shock, but aside from this, widening eyes represents an opening and welcoming expression. In women especially widened eyes tend to increase attractiveness, which is believed by some body language experts to relate to the eye/face proportions of babies, and the associated signals of attraction and prompting urges to protect and offer love and care, etc.
rubbing eye or eyes	eyes	disbelief, upset, or tiredness	Rubbing eyes or one eye can indicate disbelief, as if checking the vision, or upset, in which the action relates to crying, or tiredness, which can be due boredom, not necessarily a need for sleep. If the signal is accompanied by a long pronounced blink, this tends to support the tiredness interpretation.
eye shrug	eyes	frustration	An upward roll of the eyes signals frustration or exasperation, as if looking to the heavens for help.
pupils dilated (enlarged)	eyes	attraction, desire	The pupil is the black centre of the eye which opens or closes to let in more or less light. Darkness causes pupils to dilate. So too, for some reason does seeing something appealing or attractive. The cause of the attraction depends on the situation. In the case of sexual attraction the effect can be mutual - dilated pupils tend to be more appealing sexually that contracted ones, perhaps because of an instinctive association with darkness, night-time, bedtime, etc., although the origins of this effect are unproven. Resist the temptation to imagine that everyone you see with dilated pupils is sexually attracted to you.
blinking frequently	eyes	excitement, pressure	Normal human blink rate is considered to be between six and twenty times a minute, depending on the expert. Significantly more than this is a sign of excitement or pressure. Blink rate can increase to up to a hundred times a minute. Blink rate is not a reliable sign of lying.
blinking infrequently	eyes	various	Infrequent blink rate can mean different things and so offers no single clue unless combined with other signals. An infrequent blink rate is probably due to boredom if the eyes are not focused, or can be the opposite - concentration - if accompanied with a strongly focused gaze. Infrequent blink rate can also be accompanied by signals of hostility or negativity, and is therefore not the most revealing of body language signals.
eyebrow raising (eyebrow 'flash')	eyes	greeting, recognition, acknowledgement	Quickly raising and lowering the eyebrows is called an 'eyebrow flash'. It is a common signal of greeting and acknowledgement, and is perhaps genetically influenced since it is prevalent in monkeys (body language study does not sit entirely happily alongside creationism). Fear and surprise are also signalled by the eyebrow flash, in which case the eyebrows normally remain raised for longer, until the initial shock subsides.
winking	eyes	friendly acknowledgement, complicity (e.g., sharing a secret or joke)	Much fuss was made in May 2007 when George W Bush winked at the Queen. The fuss was made because a wink is quite an intimate signal, directed exclusively from one person to another, and is associated with male flirting. It is strange that a non-contact wink can carry more personal implications than a physical handshake, and in many situations more than a kiss on the cheek. A wink is given additional spice if accompanied by a click of the tongue. Not many people can carry it off. Additionally - and this was partly the sense in which Bush used it - a wink can signal a shared joke or secret.

pasted smile	mouth	faked smile	A pasted smile is one which appears quickly, is fixed for longer than a natural smile, and seems not to extend to the eyes. This typically indicates suppressed displeasure or forced agreement of some sort.
tight-lipped smile	mouth	secrecy or withheld feelings	Stretched across face in a straight line, teeth concealed. The smiler has a secret they are not going to share, possibly due to dislike or distrust. Can also be a rejection signal.
twisted smile	mouth	mixed feelings or sarcasm	Shows opposite emotions on each side of the face.
dropped-jaw smile	mouth	faked smile	More of a practised fake smile than an instinctive one. The jaw is dropped lower than in a natural smile, the act of which creates a smile.
smile - head tilted, looking up	mouth	playfulness, teasing, coy	Head tilted sideways and downwards so as to part hide the face, from which the smile is directed via the eyes at the intended target.
bottom lip jutting out	mouth	upset	Like rubbing eyes can be an adult version of crying, so jutting or pushing the bottom lip forward is a part of the crying face and impulse. Bear in mind that people cry for reasons of genuine upset, or to avert attack and seek sympathy or kind treatment.
laughter	mouth	relaxation	Laughter deserves a section in its own right because its such an interesting area. In terms of body language genuine laughter is a sign of relaxation and feeling at ease. Natural laughter can extend to all the upper body or whole body. The physiology of laughter is significant. Endorphins are released. Pain and stress reduces. Also vulnerabilities show and can become more visible because people's guard drops when laughing.
forced laughter	mouth	nervousness, cooperation	Unnatural laughter is often a signal of nervousness or stress, as an effort to dispel tension or change the atmosphere. Artificial laughter is a signal of cooperation and a wish to maintain empathy.
biting lip	mouth	tension	One of many signals suggesting tension or stress, which can be due to high concentration, but more likely to be anxiousness.
teeth grinding	mouth	tension, suppression	Inwardly-directed 'displacement' sign, due to suppression of natural reaction due to fear or other suppressant.
chewing gum	mouth	tension, suppression	As above - an inwardly-directed 'displacement' sign, due to suppression of natural reaction. Otherwise however can simply be to freshen breath, or as a smoking replacement.
smoking	mouth	self-comforting	Smoking obviously becomes habitual and addictive, but aside from this people put things into their mouths because it's comforting like thumb-sucking is to a child, in turn rooted in baby experiences of feeding and especially breastfeeding.
thumb-sucking	mouth	self-comforting	A self-comforting impulse in babies and children, substituting breast-feeding, which can persist as a habit into adulthood.
chewing pen or pencil	mouth	self-comforting	Like smoking and infant thumbsucking. The pen is the teat. Remember that next time you chew the end of your pen...
pursing lips	mouth	thoughtfulness, or upset	As if holding the words in the mouth until they are ready to be released. Can also indicate anxiousness or impatience at not being able to speak. Or quite differently can indicate upset, as if suppressing crying.
tongue poke	mouth / tongue	disapproval, rejection	The tongue extends briefly and slightly at the centre of the mouth as if tasting something nasty. The gesture may be extremely subtle. An extreme version may be accompanied by a wrinkling of the nose, and a squint of the eyes.
hand clamped over mouth	mouth / hands	suppression, holding back, shock	Often an unconscious gesture of self-regulation - stopping speech for reasons of shock, embarrassment, or for more tactical reasons. The gesture is reminiscent of the 'speak no evil' wise monkey. The action can be observed very clearly in young children when they witness something 'unspeakably' naughty or shocking. Extreme versions of the same effect would involve both hands.
nail biting	mouth / hands	frustration, suppression	Nail-biting is an inwardly-redirected aggression borne of fear, or some other suppression of behaviour. Later nail-biting becomes reinforced as a comforting habit, again typically prompted by frustration or fear. Stress in this context is an outcome. Stress doesn't cause nail-biting; nail-biting is the outward demonstration of stress. The cause of the stress can be various things (stressors).

 

head nodding	head	agreement	Head nodding can occur when invited for a response, or voluntarily while listening. Nodding is confusingly and rather daftly also referred to as 'head shaking up and down'. Head nodding when talking face-to-face one-to-one is easy to see, but do you always detect tiny head nods when addressing or observing a group?
slow head nodding	head	attentive listening	This can be a faked signal. As with all body language signals you must look for clusters of signals rather than relying on one alone. Look at the focus of eyes to check the validity of slow head nodding.
fast head nodding	head	hurry up, impatience	Vigorous head nodding signifies that the listener feels the speaker has made their point or taken sufficient time. Fast head nodding is rather like the 'wind-up' hand gesture given off-camera or off-stage by a producer to a performer, indicating 'time's up - get off'.
head held up	head	neutrality, alertness	High head position signifies attentive listening, usually with an open or undecided mind, or lack of bias.
head held high	head	superiority, fearlessness, arrogance	Especially if exhibited with jutting chin.
head tilted to one side	head	non-threatening, submissive, thoughtfulness	A signal of interest, and/or vulnerability, which in turn suggests a level of trust. Head tilting is thought by some to relate to 'sizing up' something, since tilting the head changes the perspective offered by the eyes, and a different view is seen of the other person or subject. Exposing the neck is also a sign of trust.
head forward, upright	head / body	interest, positive reaction	Head forward in the direction of a person or other subject indicates interest. The rule also applies to a forward leaning upper body, commonly sitting, but also standing, where the movement can be a distinct and significant advancement into a closer personal space zone of the other person. Head forward and upright is different to head tilted downward.
head tilted downward	head	criticism, admonishment	Head tilted downwards towards a person is commonly a signal of criticism or reprimand or disapproval, usually from a position of authority.
head shaking	head	disagreement	Sideways shaking of the head generally indicates disagreement, but can also signal feelings of disbelief, frustration or exasperation. Obvious of course, but often ignored or missed where the movement is small, especially in groups seemingly reacting in silent acceptance.
pronounced head shaking	head	strong disagreement	The strength of movement of the head usually relates to strength of feeling, and often to the force by which the head-shaker seeks to send this message to the receiver. This is an immensely powerful signal and is used intentionally by some people to dominate others.
head down (in response to a speaker or proposition)	head	negative, disinterested	Head down is generally a signal of rejection (of someone's ideas etc), unless the head is down for a purpose like reading supporting notes, etc. Head down when responding to criticism is a signal of failure, vulnerability (hence seeking protection), or feeling ashamed.
head down (while performing an activity)	head	defeat, tiredness	Lowering the head is a sign of loss, defeat, shame, etc. Hence the expressions such as 'don't let your head drop', and 'don't let your head go down', especially in sports and competitive activities. Head down also tends to cause shoulders and upper back to to slump, increasing the signs of weakness at that moment.
chin up	head	pride, defiance, confidence	Very similar to the 'head held high' signal. Holding the chin up naturally alters the angle of the head backwards, exposing the neck, which is a signal of strength, resilience, pride, resistance, etc. A pronounced raised chin does other interesting things to the body too - it tends to lift the sternum (breast-bone), which draws in air, puffing out the chest, and it widens the shoulders. These combined effects make the person stand bigger. An exposed neck is also a sign of confidence. 'Chin up' is for these reasons a long-standing expression used to encourage someone to be brave.
active listening	head / face	attention, interest, attraction	When people are listening actively and responsively this shows in their facial expression and their head movements. The head and face are seen to respond fittingly and appropriately to what is being said by the speaker. Nodding is relevant to what is being said. Smiles and other expressions are relevant too. The head may tilt sideways. Mirroring of expressions may occur. Silences are used to absorb meaning. The eyes remain sharply focused on the eyes of the speaker, although at times might lower to look at the mouth, especially in male-female engagements.

 

crossed arms (folded arms)	arms	defensiveness, reluctance	Crossed arms represent a protective or separating barrier. This can be due to various causes, ranging from severe animosity or concern to mild boredom or being too tired to be interested and attentive. Crossed arms is a commonly exhibited signal by subordinates feeling threatened by bosses and figures of authority. N.B. People also cross arms when they are feeling cold, so be careful not to misread this signal.
crossed arms with clenched fists	arms	hostile defensiveness	Clenched fists reinforce stubbornness, aggression or the lack of empathy indicated by crossed arms.
gripping own upper arms	arms	insecurity	Gripping upper arms while folded is effectively self-hugging. Self-hugging is an attempt to reassure unhappy or unsafe feelings.
one arm across body clasping other arm by side (female)	arms	nervousness	Women use this gesture. Men tend not to. It's a 'barrier' protective signal, and also self-hugging.
arms held behind body with hands clasped	arms	confidence, authority	As demonstrated by members of the royal family, armed forces officers, teachers, policemen, etc.
handbag held in front of body (female)	arms	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.
holding papers across chest (mainly male)	arms	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal, especially when arm is across chest.
adjusting cuff, watchstrap, tie, etc., using an arm across the body	arms	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.
arms/hands covering genital region (male)	arms / hands	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.
holding a drink in front of body with both hands	arms / hands	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.
seated, holding drink on one side with hand from other side	arms / hands	nervousness	One arm rests on the table across the body, holding a drink (or pen, etc). Another 'barrier' protective signal.
touching or scratching shoulder using arm across body	arms / shoulder	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.

palm(s) up or open	hands	submissive, truthful, honesty, appealing	Said to evolve from when open upward palms showed no weapon was held. A common gesture with various meanings around a main theme of openness. Can also mean "I don't have the answer," or an appeal. In some situations this can indicate confidence (such as to enable openness), or trust/trustworthiness. An easily faked gesture to convey innocence. Outward open forearms or whole arms are more extreme versions of the signal.
palm(s) up, fingers pointing up	hands	defensive, instruction to stop	Relaxed hands are more likely to be defensive as if offered up in protection; rigid fingers indicates a more authoritative instruction or request to stop whatever behaviour is promoting the reaction.
palm(s) down	hands	authority, strength, dominance	Where the lower arm moves across the body with palm down this is generally defiance or firm disagreement.
palm up and moving up and down as if weighing	hands	striving for or seeking an answer	The hand is empty, but figuratively holds a problem or idea as if weighing it. The signal is one of 'weighing' possibilities.
hand(s) on heart (left side of chest)	hands	seeking to be believed	Although easy to fake, the underlying meaning is one of wanting to be believed, whether being truthful or not. Hand on heart can be proactive, as when a salesman tries to convince a buyer, or reactive, as when claiming innocence or shock. Whatever, the sender of this signal typically feels the need to emphasise their position as if mortally threatened, which is rarely the case.
finger pointing (at a person)	hands	aggression, threat, emphasis	Pointing at a person is very confrontational and dictatorial. Commonly adults do this to young people. Adult to adult it is generally unacceptable and tends to indicate a lack of social awareness or self-control aside from arrogance on the part of the finger pointer. The finger is thought to represent a gun, or pointed weapon. Strongly associated with anger, directed at another person. An exception to the generally aggressive meaning of finger pointing is the finger point and wink, below.
finger point and wink	hands/ eyes	acknowledgement or confirmation	The subtle use of a winked eye with a pointed finger changes the finger point into a different signal, that of acknowledging something, often a contribution or remark made by someone, in which case the finger and wink are directed at the person concerned, and can be a signal of positive appreciation, as if to say, "You got it," or "You understand it, well done".
finger pointing (in the air)	hands	emphasis	Pointing in the air is generally used to add emphasis, by a person feeling in authority or power.
finger wagging (side to side)	hands	warning, refusal	Rather like the waving of a pistol as a threat. Stop it/do as you are told, or else..
finger wagging (up and down)	hands	admonishment, emphasis	The action is like pressing a button on a keypad several times. Like when a computer or elevator won't work, as if pressing the button lots of times will make any difference..
hand chop	hands	emphasis - especially the last word on a matter	The hand is used like a guillotine, as if to kill the discussion.
clenched fist(s)	hands	resistance, aggression, determination	One or two clenched fists can indicate different feelings - defensive, offensive, positive or negative, depending on context and other signals. Logically a clenched fist prepares the hand (and mind and body) for battle of one sort or another, but in isolation the signal is impossible to interpret more precisely than a basic feeling of resolve.
finger tips and thumbs touching each other on opposite hands ('steepling')	hands	thoughtfulness, looking for or explaining connections or engagement	Very brainy folk use this gesture since it reflects complex and/or elevated thinking. In this gesture only the fingertips touch - each finger with the corresponding digit of the other hand, pointing upwards like the rafters of a tall church roof. Fingers are spread and may be rigidly straight or relaxed and curved. Alternating the positions (pushing fingers together then relaxing again - like a spider doing press-ups on a mirror) enables the fascinating effect (nothing to do with body language), which after enough repetition can produce a sensation of having a greased sheet of glass between the fingers. Try it - it's very strange. Very brainy people probably don't do this because they have more important things to think about. It's their loss.
steepled fingers pointing forward	hands	thoughtfulness and barrier	The upwards-pointing version tends to indicate high-minded or connective/complex thinking, however when this hand shape is directed forward it also acts as a defensive or distancing barrier between the thinker and other(s) present.
palms down moving up and down, fingers spread	hands	seeking or asking for calm, loss of control of a group or situation	Seen often in rowdy meetings the gesture is typically a few inches above the table top, but is also seen standing up. The action is one of suppressing or holding down a rising pressure. Teachers use this gesture when trying to quieten a class.
cracking knuckles	hands	comforting habit, attention-seeking	Usually male. Machismo or habit. Meaning depends on context. No-one knows still exactly how the noise is made, but the notion that the practice leads to arthritis is now generally thought to be nonsense.
interwoven clenched fingers	hands	frustration, negativity, anxiousness	Usually hands would be on a table or held across stomach or on lap.
index finger and thumb touching at tips	hands	satisfaction, 'OK'	This is generally seen to be the 'OK' signal, similar to the 'thumbs up'. The signal may be to oneself quietly, or more pronounced directed to others. There is also the sense of this suggesting something being 'just right' as if the finger and thumb are making a fine adjustment with a pinch of spice or a tiny turn of a control knob. The circle formed by the joined finger and thumb resembles the O from OK. The remaining three fingers are spread.
thumb(s) up	hands	positive approval, agreement, all well	In the Western world this signal is so commonly used and recognized it has become a language term in its own right: 'thumbs up' means approved. It's a very positive signal. Two hands is a bigger statement of the same meaning.
thumbs down	hands	disapproval, failure	Logically the opposite of thumbs up. Rightly or wrongly the thumbs up and down signals are associated with the gladiatorial contests of the ancient Roman arenas in which the presiding dignitary would signal the fate of the losing contestants.
thumb(s) clenched inside fist(s)	hands	self-comforting, frustration, insecurity	As with other signals involving holding or stroking a part of one's own body this tends to indicate self-comforting. Also thumbs are potent and flexible tools, so disabling them logically reduces a person's readiness for action.
hand held horizontally and rocked from side to side	hands	undecided, in the balance	Signalling that a decision or outcome, normally finely balanced and difficult to predict or control, could go one way or another.
rubbing hands together	hands	anticipation, relish	A signal - often a conscious gesture - of positive expectation, and often related to material or financial reward, or an enjoyable activity and outcome.
touching nose, while speaking	hands / nose	lying or exaggeration	This is said to hide the reddening of the nose caused by increased blood flow. Can also indicate mild embellishment or fabrication. The children's story about Pinocchio (the wooden puppet boy whose nose grew when he told lies) reflects long-standing associations between the nose and telling lies.
scratching nose, while speaking	hands / nose	lying or exaggeration	Nose-scratching while speaking is a warning sign, unless the person genuinely has an itchy nose. Often exhibited when recounting an event or incident.
pinching or rubbing nose, while listening	hands / nose	thoughtfulness, suppressing comment	In many cases this is an unconscious signalling of holding back or delaying a response or opinion. Pinching the nose physically obstructs breathing and speech, especially if the mouth is covered at the same time. Rather like the more obvious hand-clamp over the mouth, people displaying this gesture probably have something to say but are choosing not to say it yet.
picking nose	hands / nose	day-dreaming, inattentive, socially disconnected, stress	Nose picking is actually extremely common among adults but does not aid career development or social acceptance and is therefore normally a private affair. When observed, nose-picking can signify various states of mind, none particularly positive.
pinching bridge of nose	hands / nose	negative evaluation	Usually accompanied with a long single blink.
hands clamped on ears	hands / ears	rejection of or resistance to something	Not surprisingly gestures involving hands covering the ears signify a reluctance to listen and/or to agree with what is being said or to the situation as a whole. The gesture is occasionally seen by a person doing the talking, in which case it tends to indicate that other views and opinions are not wanted or will be ignored.
ear tugging	hands / ears	indecision, self-comforting	People fiddle with their own bodies in various ways when seeking comfort, but ear-pulling or tugging given suitable supporting signs can instead indicate indecision and related pondering.
hands clasping head	hands / head	calamity	Hands clasping head is like a protective helmet against some disaster or problem.
hand stroking chin	hands / chin	thoughtfulness	The stroking of a beard is a similar signal, although rare among women.
hand supporting chin or side of face	hands / chin, face	evaluation, tiredness or boredom	Usually the forearm is vertical from the supporting elbow on a table. People who display this signal are commonly assessing or evaluating next actions, options, or reactions to something or someone. If the resting is heavier and more prolonged, and the gaze is unfocused or averted, then tiredness or boredom is a more likely cause. A lighter resting contact is more likely to be evaluation, as is lightly resting the chin on the knuckles.
chin resting on thumb, index finger pointing up against face	hands / chin	evaluation	This is a more reliable signal of evaluation than the above full-hand support. Normally the supporting elbow will be on a table or surface. The middle finger commonly rests horizontally between chin and lower lip.
neck scratching	hands / neck	doubt, disbelief	Perhaps evolved from a feeling of distrust and instinct to protect the vulnerable neck area. Who knows - whatever, the signal is generally due to doubting or distrusting what is being said.
hand clasping wrist	hands / wrist	frustration	Clasping a wrist, which may be behind the back or in open view, can be a signal of frustration, as if holding oneself back.
running hands through hair	hair / hair	flirting, or vexation, exasperation	Take your pick - running hands through the hair is commonly associated with flirting, and sometimes it is, although given different supporting signals, running hands through the hair can indicate exasperation or upset.
hand(s) on hip(s)	hands / arms	confidence, readiness, availability	The person is emphasizing their presence and readiness for action. Observable in various situations, notably sport, and less pronounced poses in social and work situations. In social and flirting context it is said that the hands are drawing attention to the genital area.
hands in pockets	hands / arms	disinterest, boredom	The obvious signal is one of inaction, and not being ready for action. Those who stand with hands in pockets - in situations where there is an expectation for people to be enthusiastic and ready for action - demonstrate apathy and lack of interest for the situation.
removing spectacles	hands / spectacles	alerting wish to speak	For people who wear reading-only spectacles, this is an example of an announcement or alerting gesture, where a person readies themselves to speak and attracts attention to the fact. Other alerting signals include raising the hand, taking a breath, moving upwards and forwards in their seat, etc.
playing an imaginary violin	hands / arms	mock sympathy or sadness	The 'air violin' has been around a lot longer than the 'air guitar', and is based on the traditional use of violin music as a theme or background for sad scenes in movies and in music generally. The 'air violin' is not typically included in body language guides; it's here as an amusing gesture which demonstrates our conscious practice and recognition of certain signals.
thumb and fingers formed into a tube and rocked side to side or up and down (mainly male)	hands	offensive - mockery, dissatisfaction, expression of inferior quality	A conscious signal, usually one-handed. Insulting gesture if directed at a person, typically male to male, since it mimics masturbation, like calling a person a 'tosser' or a 'wanker' (UK) or a jerk-off (US). This is obviously rude and not used in respectable company such as the queen or a group of clergymen. The gesture is also used as a response to something regarded as poor quality, which might be a performance or piece of work or a comment on a product of some sort. The allusion is to masturbation being a poor substitute for sex with a woman, and that those who masturbate are not 'real men'. Unsurprisingly the gesture is mainly male, directed at other males, especially in tribal-like gatherings. Rare female use of this gesture directed at males can be very effective due to its humiliating value. For obvious reasons the gesture is unlikely to be used by females or males directed at females.
two-fingered V-sign, palm inward (mainly male)	hands / fingers	offensive - derision, contempt	A consciously offensive and aggressive gesture, also called 'flicking the Vs', widely but probably incorrectly thought to derive from the 1415 Battle of Agincourt in the Hundred Years War when the tactically pivotal Welsh longbowmen supposedly derided the beaten French soldiers' and their threats to cut off the bowmen's fingers.
two-fingered V-sign, palm outward	hands fingers	victory, peace	British 2nd World War leader Winston Churchill popularised the victory usage, although apparently, significantly if so, first used the palm inwards version until he was told what it meant to the working classes.

handshake - palm down	handshake	dominance	Usually a firm handshake, the 'upper hand' tends to impose and/or create a dominant impression.
handshake - palm up	handshake	submission, accommodating	Usually not a strong handshake, the lower hand has submitted to the upper hand dominance. How all this ultimately translates into the subsequent relationship and outcomes can depend on more significant factors than the handshake.
handshake - both hands	handshake	seeking to convey trustworthiness and honesty, seeking to control	Whether genuine or not, this handshake is unduly physical and (often) uncomfortably domineering.
handshake - equal and vertical	handshake	non-threatening, relaxed	Most handshakes are like this, when neither person seeks to control or to yield.
pumping handshake	handshake	enthusiasm	A vigorous pumping handshake tends to indicate energy and enthusiasm of the shaker towards the other person, the meeting, situation or project, etc). There is a sense of attempting to transfer energy and enthusiasm, literally, from the vigorous handshaker to the shaken person, hence the behaviour is popular in motivational folk and evangelists, etc.
weak handshake	handshake	various	Avoid the common view that a weak handshake is the sign of a weak or submissive person. It is not. Weak handshakes can be due to various aspects of personality, mood, etc. People who use their hands in their profession, for example, musicians, artists, surgeons, etc., can have quite gentle sensitive handshakes. Strong but passive people can have gentle handshakes. Old people can have weak handshakes. A weak handshake might be due to arthritis. Young people unaccustomed to handshaking can have weak handshakes. It's potentially a very misleading signal.
firm handshake	handshake	outward confidence	Avoid the common view that a firm handshake is the sign of a strong solid person. It is not. Firm handshakes are a sign of outward confidence, which could mask deceit or a weak bullying nature, or indicate a strong solid person. Strength of a handshake is not by itself an indicator of positive 'good' mood or personality, and caution is required in reading this signal. It is widely misinterpreted.
handshake with arm clasp	handshake	seeking control, paternalism	When a handshake is accompanied by the left hand clasping the other person's right arm this indicates a wish to control or a feeling of care, which can be due to arrogance. To many this represents an unwanted invasion of personal space, since touching 'permission' is for the handshake only.

leg direction, sitting - general	legs/knees	interest, attentiveness (according to direction)	Generally a seated person directs their knee or knees towards the point of interest. The converse is true also - legs tend to point away from something or someone which is uninteresting or threatening. The rule applies with crossed legs also, where the upper knee indicates interest or disinterest according to where it points. The more direct and obvious the position, the keener the attraction or repellent feeling.
uncrossed legs, sitting - general	legs	openness	In sitting positions, open uncrossed leg positions generally indicate an open attitude, contrasting with with crossed legs, which normally indicate a closed attitude or a degree of caution or uncertainty.
parallel legs together, sitting (mainly female)	legs	properness	This unusual in men, especially if the knees point an angle other than straight ahead. The posture was common in women due to upbringing and clothing and indicates a sense of properness.
crossed legs, sitting - general	legs	caution, disinterest	Crossed legs tend to indicate a degree of caution or disinterest, which can be due to various reasons, ranging from feeling threatened, to mildly insecure.
crossing legs, sitting - specific change	legs	interest or disinterest in direction of upper crossed knee	Generally the upper crossed leg and knee will point according to the person's interest. If the knee points towards a person then it signifies interest in or enthusiasm for that person; if it points away from a person it signifies disinterest in or a perceived threat from that person. Signs are more indicative when people first sit down and adopt initial positions in relation to others present. Signs become less reliable when people have been sitting for half-an-hour or so, when leg crossing can change more for comfort than body language reasons.
American or figure-4 leg cross	legs	independent, stubborn	The 'American' or 'figure-4' leg cross is a far more confident posture than the conventional 'both knees' leg cross. It exposes the genital region, and typically causes the upper body to lean back. The crossed leg is nevertheless a protective barrier, and so this posture is regarded as more stubborn than the 'both knees' leg cross.
American or figure-4 leg cross with hand clamp	legs / arm / hand	resistant, stubborn	This is a more protective and stubborn version of the plain American leg cross, in which (usually) the opposite hand to the crossing leg clamps and holds the ankle of the crossing leg, effectively producing a locked position, which reflects the mood of the person.
open legs, sitting (mainly male)	legs	arrogance, combative, sexual posturing	This is a confident dominant posture. Happily extreme male open-crotch posing is rarely exhibited in polite or formal situations since the signal is mainly sexual. This is a clear exception to the leg/knee point rule since the pointing is being done by the crotch, whose target might be a single person or a wider audience. Not a gesture popularly used by women, especially in formal situations and not in a skirt. Regardless of gender this posture is also combative because it requires space and makes the person look bigger. The impression of confidence is increased when arms are also in a wide or open position.
ankle lock, sitting	legs	defensiveness	Knees may be apart (among men predominantly) or together (more natural in women). There is also a suggestion of suppressing negative emotion.
splayed legs, standing	legs	aggression, ready for action	Splayed, that is wide-parted legs create (usually unconsciously) a firm base from which to defend or attack, and also make the body look wider. Hands on hips support the interpretation.
standing 'at attention'	legs / body	respectful	Standing upright, legs straight, together and parallel, body quite upright, shoulders back, arms by sides - this is like the military 'at attention' posture and is often a signal of respect or subservience adopted when addressed by someone in authority.
legs intertwined, sitting (female)	legs	insecurity or sexual posing	Also called 'leg twine', this is a tightly crossed leg, twined or wrapped around the supporting leg. Depending on the circumstances the leg twine can either be a sign of retreat and protection, or a sexual display of leg shapeliness, since a tight leg-cross tends to emphasise muscle and tone. Assessing additional body language is crucial for interpreting such signals of potentially very different meanings.
legs crossed, standing (scissor stance)	legs	insecurity or submission or engagement	Typically observed in groups of standing people at parties or other gatherings, defensive signals such as crossed legs and arms among the less confident group members is often reinforced by a physical and audible lack of involvement and connection with more lively sections of the group. Where legs are crossed and arms are not, this can indicate a submissive or committed agreement to stand and engage, so the standing leg cross relays potentially quite different things.
knee buckle, standing	legs / knees	under pressure	Obviously a pronounced knee buckle is effectively a collapse due to severe stress or actually carrying a heavy weight, and similarly a less obvious knee bend while standing can indicate the anticipation of an uncomfortable burden or responsibility.
feet or foot direction or pointing	feet	foot direction indicates direction of interest	Like knees, feet tend to point towards the focus of interest - or away from something or someone if it is not of interest. Foot direction or pointing in this context is a subtle aspect of posture - this is not using the foot to point at something; it is merely the direction of the feet when sitting or standing in relation to people close by.
foot forward, standing	feet	directed towards dominant group member	The signal is interesting among groups, when it can indicate perceptions of leadership or dominance, i.e., the forward foot points at the leader or strongest member of the group.
shoe-play (female)	feet	relaxation, flirting, sexual	A woman would usually be relaxed to display this signal. In certain situations dangling a shoe from the foot, and more so slipping the foot in and out of the shoe has sexual overtones.

1. Close intimate	0-15cm 0-6in	lovers, and physical touching relationships	Sometimes included with the 2nd zone below, this is a markedly different zone in certain situations, for example face-to-face contact with close friends rarely encroaches within 6 inches, but commonly does with a lover.
2. Intimate	15-45cm 6-18in	physical touching relationships	Usually reserved for intimate relationships and close friendships, but also applies during consenting close activities such as contact sports, and crowded places such as parties, bars, concerts, public transport, queues and entertainment and sports spectating events. Non-consenting intrusion into this space is normally felt to be uncomfortable at best, or very threatening and upsetting at worst. Within the intimate zone a person's senses of smell and touch (being touched) become especially exercised.
3. Personal	45-120cm 18in-4ft	family and close friends	Touching is possible in this zone, but intimacy is off-limits. Hence touching other than hand-shaking is potentially uncomfortable.
4. Social- consultative	1.2-3.6m 4-12ft	non-touch interaction, social, business	Significantly hand-shaking is only possible within this zone only if both people reach out to do it. Touching is not possible unless both people reach to do it.
5. Public	3.6m+ 12ft+	no interaction, ignoring	People establish this zonal space when they seek to avoid interaction with others nearby. When this space is intruded by another person is creates a discomfort or an expectation of interaction.